# Josephus

> Roman–Jewish historian and military leader (c. 37–c. 100)

**Wikidata**: [Q134461](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134461)  
**Wikipedia**: [English](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josephus)  
**Source**: https://4ort.xyz/entity/josephus

## Summary

Josephus (c. 37–c. 100 AD) was a Roman-Jewish historian and military leader who authored seminal works documenting Jewish history and the First Jewish-Roman War. Originally born Joseph ben Matityahu, he later became known as Flavius Josephus after being adopted into the Roman Flavian family. His writings remain primary historical sources for understanding Second Temple Judaism and the Jewish revolt against Rome.

## Biography

- **Born:** c. 37 AD (uncertain between 37 or 38 AD)
- **Nationality:** Roman Empire (Jewish by birth, Roman citizen by adoption)
- **Education:** Received traditional Jewish education; trained in Jewish law; later educated in Roman literary traditions
- **Known for:** Authoring "The Jewish War," "Antiquities of the Jews," "The Life of Flavius Josephus," and "Against Apion" — foundational works on Jewish history and the Jewish-Roman conflict
- **Employer(s):** Roman Empire (following capture in the First Jewish-Roman War); previously served as a Jewish military commander during the revolt
- **Field(s):** History, historiography, military leadership

## Contributions

Josephus authored four major surviving works that constitute essential primary sources for ancient Jewish and Roman history:

1. **The Jewish War** (Bellum Judaicum) — A detailed account of the First Jewish-Roman War (66–73 AD), written in Aramaic originally, then Greek. This work documents the siege of Jerusalem, the destruction of the Second Temple, and the fall of Masada. It was composed between 75–79 AD and dedicated to Epaphroditus.

2. **Antiquities of the Jews** (Antiquitates Judaicae) — A 20-book historiographical work covering Jewish history from creation to the outbreak of the First Jewish-Roman War (66 AD). Completed around 93–94 AD, it represents one of the earliest extensive histories of Judaism written in Greek.

3. **The Life of Flavius Josephus** (Vita) — An autobiographical work focusing primarily on his role as commander in Galilee during the early stages of the Jewish revolt. It was written as an appendix to "Antiquities of the Jews."

4. **Against Apion** (Contra Apionem) — A polemical work defending Judaism against Greek and Egyptian critics, written in defense of Jewish antiquity and religious traditions.

Additionally, the **Josephus problem** — a mathematical counting-out question — bears his name, demonstrating his influence beyond history into mathematics.

## FAQs

**What was Josephus's original name?**
Josephus was born as Joseph ben Matityahu (יוסף בן מתתיהו) and later became known as Flavius Josephus after being pardoned and adopted by the Flavian family (Emperor Vespasian and his son Titus).

**What role did Josephus play in the First Jewish-Roman War?**
Josephus served as a military commander of Jewish forces in Galilee during the First Jewish-Roman War (66–73 AD). He was later captured by Roman forces and correctly predicted Vespasian would become emperor, leading to his pardon and adoption into the Flavian household.

**Why are Josephus's writings historically significant?**
His works provide the most detailed contemporary account of Second Temple Judaism, the Jewish revolt against Rome, and Jewish history from creation through the first century AD. They are indispensable sources for understanding this period.

**What is the Josephus problem?**
The Josephus problem is a mathematical counting-out game or puzzle based on a story from Josephus's account of the siege of Jotapata, where he and his soldiers arranged to kill each other in a specific counting pattern rather than surrender to the Romans.

**What language did Josephus write in?**
Josephus wrote "The Jewish War" initially in Aramaic for distribution in the East, then composed the Greek version. "Antiquities of the Jews," "The Life," and "Against Apion" were all written in Greek.

## Why They Matter

Josephus remains one of the most important historians of the ancient world because his works preserve Jewish history and culture during a critical transitional period. His account of the First Jewish-Roman War provides the primary narrative for understanding the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 AD — a pivotal event that transformed Judaism from a temple-based religion to a rabbinic tradition.

His writings served as a bridge between Jewish and Greco-Roman historiographical traditions, making Jewish history accessible to Greek and Roman readers. Without Josephus's works, vast portions of Jewish history, including the Hasmonean period, the reign of Herod the Great, and the Jewish revolt against Rome, would be known only through fragmentary or hostile sources.

The fish species *Astatotilapia flaviijosephi* was named in his honor, demonstrating his enduring scientific legacy beyond history. His autobiographical writings also established a model for later autobiographical literature in the ancient world.

## Notable For

- Authoring the only surviving contemporary history of the First Jewish-Roman War
- Providing the primary source for the siege of Masada and the destruction of the Second Temple
- Creating the most extensive extant work on Jewish antiquity in Greek
- Being one of the few Jewish authors whose works were preserved and transmitted through Christian monastic traditions
- Being the namesake of the Josephus problem in combinatorics
- His works being cited by early Christian writers like Origen and Eusebius, ensuring their preservation

## Body

### Early Life and Background

Josephus was born around 37 AD (sources vary between 37 and 38 AD) into a priestly family with royal lineage through the Hasmoneans. His father, Matthias, belonged to the first of the 24 priestly courses, and his mother was of Hasmonean descent. This aristocratic background provided him access to the highest levels of Jewish society and religious education.

He received extensive education in Jewish law and traditions, studying with the three major Jewish philosophical schools — the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes — before aligning himself with the Pharisees. At age 16, he devoted himself to the study of Jewish law and spent three years in the wilderness before returning to Jerusalem around 54 AD.

### Role in the Jewish-Roman War

In 66 AD, when tensions between Jewish rebels and Roman authorities escalated into open conflict, Josephus was appointed military commander of Galilee — the northern region that would bear the initial brunt of Roman retaliation. He organized defenses, fortified cities, and attempted to maintain order while preparing for the inevitable Roman response.

Following the Roman general Vespasian's campaign in 67 AD, Josephus found himself besieged at Jotapata. During the siege, he and his soldiers famously discussed mass suicide rather than capture. According to Josephus's account, they arranged to kill each other in a specific counting pattern — this mathematical arrangement became known as the Josephus problem. Josephus and one other soldier survived, having arranged to be the last two remaining.

### Capture and Adoption

When Vespasian captured Josephus, the Jewish commander made a prophecy that Vespasian would become emperor — a prediction that proved accurate when Nero committed suicide in 68 AD and civil war erupted. Vespasian, impressed by the prophecy and Josephus's intelligence, pardoned him. When Vespasian actually became emperor in 69 AD (the Year of the Four Emperors), Josephus was released from captivity and adopted into the Flavian family, receiving the name "Flavius Josephus."

### Historical Works

Following the war, Josephus settled in Rome and devoted himself to writing history. His first major work, "The Jewish War," was composed between 75 and 79 AD, likely first in Aramaic for Jewish audiences in the East, then translated or rewritten in Greek. The work documents the conflict from 66 AD through the fall of Masada in 73 or 74 AD, providing detailed accounts of Jewish factions, Roman military tactics, and the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple.

His most ambitious work, "Antiquities of the Jews" (Antiquitates Judaicae), was completed around 93–94 AD and comprises 20 books covering Jewish history from creation to the outbreak of the revolt in 66 AD. This work drew heavily on Jewish scriptures but also incorporated additional traditions and aimed to present Jewish history and culture in terms comprehensible to Greek and Roman readers.

"The Life of Flavius Josephus" (Vita) was written as an autobiographical work, primarily defending his conduct as commander in Galilee against accusations of treachery. While less comprehensive than other ancient autobiographies, it provides valuable details about his background and early career.

"Against Apion" (Contra Apionem) represents his apologetic defense of Judaism against Greek and Egyptian critics. In two books, he defended Jewish antiquity, responded to anti-Jewish literature, and argued for the superiority of Jewish religious and moral traditions.

### Legacy and Influence

Josephus's works were preserved through Christian transmission — early Christian writers found his testimony valuable for confirming aspects of the New Testament, particularly the existence of Jesus, John the Baptist, and the historical circumstances of the crucifixion. His works were translated into Latin, Syriac, and other languages throughout the medieval period.

The fish *Astatotilapia flaviijosephi* was named in his honor, reflecting his scientific legacy. The Josephus problem remains a standard topic in mathematics education, demonstrating how his historical narrative inspired enduring mathematical puzzles.

His works continue to be essential reading for scholars of ancient history, New Testament studies, Jewish history, and Roman history. The Yale University Press and other publishers continue to produce critical editions and translations of his writings.

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